"This volume is a collection of papers written over the course of forty years. It examines political attitudes, patterns of political behavior, and institutional framework of transition to democracy in Poland. Its contents have been shaped by and provide commentary on the often-dramatic political developments in Poland: the emergence of the massive liberation movement "Solidarity" in 1980-81; the dissent against the communist regime in the 1980s; the struggles to pave the roads toward consolidated democracy in the 1990s; and the problems with adaptation to European liberal values in the 21st century that led to democratic backsliding. In conclusion, it presents the cultural and structural background of the cleavage between the proponents of open society and its enemies"--
Soviet funeral practices for members of the state elite are built on two factors. They use the achievements of antiquity and the Bible, and depend on the position of the deceased at the time of their death. On the one hand, 'elite' refers to the highest-ranked representatives of the Soviet authorities (primarily the first secretaries of the party and marshals of the army and sometimes very meritorious activists). The custom of mummification, which was taken from antiquity and the Bible, was used for Lenin and Stalin. However, what was done with the bodies of these two most important Soviets was actually thanatopraxis, which involves replacing blood in the bloodstream immediately after death by introducing in its place a fluid with a strictly protected chemical composition that preserves the corpse from the inside. Piłsudski's body was also subjected to thanatopraxis after death. This method is still used today by families of various magnates and of important mafia people. The second factor is the evaluation of a given person by successors. When speaking of special burial sites, except for the two aforementioned figures, others were buried next to Lenin's mausoleum (formerly, from 1953 to 1956, Lenin's and Stalin's, then only Lenin's until modern times). All the first/general secretaries of the Communist Party are buried there, except Nikita Khrushchev. He did not deserve a proper burial as he had thrown Stalin's body out of the mausoleum into an earthen grave and revealed a veil of state secrets in a secret report on the cult of personality and its disastrous consequences on the party elite, which at that time had only been bestowed by Stalin. He was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery. It is also a very prestigious burial place for many prominent Soviets. There are also several other Moscow necropolises, which served as the resting place of equally distinguished comrades as space at the Novodevichy Cemetery was reduced.
Before the Partitions of Poland, the east territories of the country were inhabited by several nations and ethnic groups. However, from a later perspective, in particular the contemporary one, this common past is differently assessed by particular groups. The common (historical) path divides more than reconciles them. This also applies to the area of terms and definitions. This refers in particular to the civilisation mission of Poland in the East. It was often misunderstood and even condemned. In contemporary times, the countries that were established in the former Polish territories cannot develop relations with Poland due to the historical circumstances. This article analyses examples of the most common conflicts and suggests possible solutions.
This article is part of the special cluster titled Generation '68 in Poland (with a Czechoslovak Comparative Perspective). This is the introduction to a special section "Generation '68 in Poland (with a Czechoslovak Comparative Perspective)." The author analyzes the concept of "generation" and introduces the articles that compose this collection.
